Figure Captions:
FIGURE 1 Location of the study area: (a) Reynolds
Creek Experimental Watershed (RCEW) in Idaho, USA. (b) Reynolds Mountain
within RCEW. (c) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of Reynolds Mountain.
FIGURE 2 Physiographic characteristics of the Reynolds
Mountain basin including (a) elevation range, (b) slope, and (c) aspect.
FIGURE 3 Hydrologic response units (HRUs) used for
hydrological modeling in Reynolds Mountain (22 HRUs) classified based on
vegetation type and topographic characteristics.
FIGURE 4 Evaluation of the modeled snow water
equivalent (SWE) against observations at the snow pillow site in
Reynolds Mountain during 1984-2008. The blue line represents observed
SWE, the red line represents modeled SWE, and the black line shows
cumulative snowfall in respective winters.
FIGURE 5 Comparison between observed lidar snow depth
and simulated snow depth in meters.
FIGURE 6 Correlation between regional climatic teleconnections
and hydrological fluxes at local scales, includingta : mean annual air temperature,tw : mean air temperature in winter, P :
mean annual precipitation, Rain: mean annual rainfall,Rainratio : proportional ratio of annual rainfall
to total solid and liquid annual precipitation; Snow: total annual
snowfall, Runoff: total annual runoff from snowmelt and rainfall,Rratio : proportional ratio of annual runoff to
total solid and liquid annual precipitation, RROS:
runoff generated during rain-on-snow events, SWE : annual peak
snow water equivalent, SWEdate : timing of the
peak snow water equivalent. Points at y = 0 indicate that the highest
correlations are between the same year teleconnections and hydrological
fluxes. Points below zero indicate a one-year lagged correlation meaning
that the hydrological flux is affected by teleconnections in the
preceding year. Points above zero indicate that the hydrological flux is
affected by teleconnections in the following year.
FIGURE 7 Identification of six hydroclimatic phases
based on the decomposed time series of daily precipitation over
1983-2014 and first eigenvector of the singular spectrum analysis (SSA),
representing an intermediate (multiple year) frequency of the
precipitation variations.
FIGURE 8 Anomalies of observed precipitation, winter
air temperature, modeled rainfall ratio, observed runoff ratio and the
selected teleconnection indices over the period of 1993-2014. These
indices are Antarctic Oscillation (AAO), Sea Surface Temperature (SST)
anomalies in the Niño 3.4 region of Equatorial Pacific Ocean, Arctic
Oscillation (AO), North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO), and Pacific North
American index (PNA). Vertical lines separate the six hydroclimatic
phases.
FIGURE 9 (a) Total mean annual runoff generated during
rain on snow (ROS) events based on snow cover and rainfall occurrence
and (b) its anomalies relative to the long-term averages in four blowing
snow regimes, including source, sink, sheltered forest, and forest with
intercepted snow on the canopy in Reynolds Mountain in different
hydroclimatic phases. Heterogeneity of snow cover due to topography and
redistribution of snow by blowing wind affects the runoff generated
during rain on snow events. Snow transport to sinks and topographic
depressions with drifted snow can intensify snowmelt in spring and early
summer when the likelihood of precipitation to fall as rain is high.
FIGURE 10 Distributed modeled peak SWE and annual
runoff for each of the six hydroclimatic phases: Phase one – high flow
under negative phases of AO and SST; Phase two – warm and dry under
positive NAO and AO; Phase three – cold and high rain on snow runoff
under negative AO and positive AAO; Phase four – warm conditions under
positive PNA; Phase five – normal conditions under positive PNA pattern
and negative NAO; and Phase six – warm and dry under negative PNA and
positive NAO.