Introduction
While wild bees are acknowledged to be extremely important pollinators
for many plant species, honey bees (Apis mellifera spp.) remain
the most economically and easily managed pollinator of the main crop
monocultures worldwide (Klein et al., 2007). In recent years, the
decline in pollinators, both wild and managed, has gained much attention
(Samson-Robert et al., 2017), prompting a considerable amount of
research (Lundin et al., 2015). In light of these studies, a suite of
numerous, and interacting factors have been highlighted as possible risk
factors having an impact on bee decline and mortality. These risks
include the loss of foraging resources due to habitat loss and its
homogenization (Kennedy et al., 2013), the introduction of invasive
species (Monceau et al., 2014), climate change (Dennis and Kemp, 2016;
Murcia Morales et al., 2020; Neumann & Carreck, 2015; Switanek et al.,
2017), parasites (Goulson et al., 2015; Muli et al., 2014), pathogens
(Doublet et al., 2015; Mondet et al., 2014), loss of genetic diversity
(Oldroyd, 2007), exposure to pesticides (Cresswell et al., 2012; James
and Xu, 2012; Johnson et al., 2010; Nazzi et al., 2012) and beekeeping
management practices (Giacobino et al., 2017; Steinhauer, 2017;
vanEngelsdorp et al., 2012).
Honey bees are managed pollinators, their survival relies thus on the
competence and experience of the beekeeper (Steinhauer et al., 2018).
Nevertheless, the impacts of beekeepers ‘knowledge and management
practices have often been overlooked (Jacques et al., 2017). When facing
(e.g.) high pest pressure, beekeepers can reduce hazards through
physical or chemical interventions (Giacobino et al., 2014). While good
management can alleviate stress, poor management can accentuate it. Good
management practices or good risk management must be developed with
proper education and experience (Steinhauer et al., 2018).
The Belgian beekeeping context is particular as the majority of
beekeepers are hobbyists (not professional/commercial). Honey bees are
largely kept in stationary apiaries, for honey production, by amateur
beekeepers with relatively small operations and often, with empirical,
local, and heterogeneous bee management practices. Beekeepers’ main
occupation and source of income lay outside beekeeping; they keep bees
because of the activity satisfaction they derive and the intrinsic
values attached to beekeeping.
Before applying adequate risk management, beekeepers need to perceive
the impact of risks on the colony, as well as the benefits of the
actions to undertake. Understanding beekeepers’ perception of risks
affecting honeybee health and mortality is essential to analyse the
reasons for adopting or rejecting some beekeeping management practices.
Identifying and preventing risks associated with beekeeping management
may help avoid exacerbating colony mortality rate (Giacobino et al.,
2014).
In this study, a grounded theory from health psychology was used to
build a framework adapted to the beekeepers: the Health Belief Model
(HBM) (Janz and Becker, 1984; Rosenstock, 1974) (Figure 1 ). The
HBM was specifically developed for the understanding of health-related
behaviour (Vande Velde et al., 2015). It has four key concepts: (i)
perceived susceptibility is an individual’s belief that a risk can
occur. The relationship of perceived susceptibility to taking a risk
management action is modified by (ii) perceived severity of the risk,
(iii) the perceived benefits of risk management to mitigate the risk and
its consequences, and the (iv) perceived barriers to taking action.
Beyond these, actions or intentions, health responsibility, and
influences can also modify the relationship of perceived susceptibility
to action. Actions (or intentions) include recognized clinical signs,
knowledge, and education. It is expected that greater levels of
perceived risk combined with strong perceptions of the benefits of
action will lead to increased motivation to act in better ways. Other
intangible elements of risk perception and other motivations for
strategy adoption within animal health risk management often remain
unidentified though research on these issues is beginning to emerge
(Ellis-Iversen et al., 2010; Jansen et al., 2009; Valeeva et al., 2007).
This may be one of the reasons why the adoption of risk management
strategies is hard to predict and influence (Valeeva et al., 2011).
This cross-sectional survey aimed to estimate the current state of
perception of risks related to bee health and mortality at the level of
hobbyist beekeepers in Belgium and to assess a possible association
between colony mortality, the four key concepts as well as the
demography, the actions or intentions, the health responsibility, and
the influences.
Conventional production economics suggests that producers’ decisions are
essentially economic ones, driven by the desire to maximize household
welfare, net income, or profit (Garforth, 2015). As the majority of
Belgian beekeepers are hobbyists, we need to look beyond economic
drivers in the search for an understanding of beekeeper’s decisions and
behaviour.