5. Conclusion
Our study reveals high spatial variation in ant communities in both horizontal and vertical dimensions over small spatial scales. We detected a distance-decay pattern in ant assemblage composition across vertical forest strata, but no effects of horizontal distance on assemblage turnover across trees. We also found higher horizontal turnover in ant assemblages than vertical turnover at short spatial scales. These patterns are associated with variation in air temperature and relative humidity. Connectivity may also play a role in driving the high turnover of ant assemblages horizontally. Our findings highlight the necessity of considering species turnover in multiple spatial dimensions, and furthermore reveal the importance of microhabitat complexity in maintaining high biodiversity in tropical forest. Such insights will be vital for future preservation of the biodiversity of highly diverse tropical forests under anthropogenic global change impacts.