Whole GI transit time
The total GI transit time (GTT) using Carmine red stained food pellets was measured once per week as previously described with a few modifications (Kini et al., 2022). Briefly, the mice were fasted overnight (approximately 8 hours) and were placed in a clean transparent empty cage prior to the first gavage of the day. They were then fed the red pellets. The total GI transit time was measured as the interval between the first food intake until the appearance of the first red stool pellet.