Figure 4 . Industrial emissions in the EU (1990-2019)
However, according to the EEA, industrial pollution and greenhouse gases are estimated to have costed society between 277 and 433 billion euros in 2017, revealing that despite the efforts from the European Green Deal and the Zero Pollution Action Plan, more needs to be done to reduce the impact of industrial emissions [82]. To tackle industrial pollution, the EU has been developing a set of policies that would support the twin green and digital transitions to a low-carbon industry [83]. However, since these policies were published in March 2020, they were rapidly subjected to the constraints of the COVID-19 pandemic, which changed the industrial sectors worldwide.
The introduction of low-emission zones (LEZ) in urban areas has also been associated with improvements in urban air quality and has been defined to meet legislative limits and deliver improvements to childhood respiratory health, including asthma symptoms. Providing and maintaining cost-effective and easier alternatives, including expanded public transport systems, car share, safe cycles and walkable networks, to move through the urban environment may also reduce fuel consumption and, in turn, air pollution through reduced exhaust emissions. It should also be recognized a role for diet to modulate the effects of air pollution on asthma [84]. An anti-inflammatory diet characterized by higher consumption of fruits, vegetables, and legumes, fatty fish and whole grains, may also decrease the exposure effect of PM2.5 and PM10 on childhood asthma [84].