Fig. 1 Stages of biofilm formation on materials surfaces[22]
Unlike microorganisms in their free state, biofilms are coordinated, functional, membrane-like complexes in which different species of microorganisms have diverse and extensive communication, cooperation, and competition [23]. Biofilms have a complex structure and function, providing a relatively stable environment for the microorganisms within the membrane to survive and cope with the damage caused by adverse factors [25]. For microorganisms, biofilm formation has three[22,26] benefits: (1) the ability to cluster against unfavorable environments (antibiotics or host stress); (2) access to nutrients that are difficult to obtain individually; and (3) access to new genetic information through genetic drift.