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\begin{document}

\title{The use of Mee tree (Madhuca longifolia) in paddy cultivation by ancient
Sri Lankans}



\author[1]{Sajith Edirisinghe}%
\author[1]{Movini Devmini}%
\author[1]{Dulmini de silva}%
\author[1]{Shanaka Pathmaperuma}%
\author[2]{Gamini Ranasinghe}%
\affil[1]{University of Sri Jayewardenepura Faculty of Medical Sciences}%
\affil[2]{University of Sri Jayewardenepura}%


\vspace{-1em}



  
  \date{May 21, 2024}


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\selectlanguage{english}
\begin{abstract}
Agriculture has long been regarded as the backbone of Sri Lanka,
contributing to its' economy for over thousands of years. However, with
recent technological advancements many of the indigenous practices with
regard to cultivation have been neglected or forgotten. The use of toxic
chemicals in agricultural practices has led to a host of deleterious
effects on humans as well as the environment. This paper looks into how
ancient Sri Lankans utilized a native tree, Madhuca longifolia (Mee), in
paddy cultivation for various purposes including the prevention of soil
erosion, water conservation, soil enrichment and pest control measures.
Although our ancestors lacked the scientific knowledge to justify their
practice, the basis for these are now understood in the scientific
community. Therefore, a return to these practices may be worthwhile in
terms of their beneficial influence on agriculture, environment and
human health and wellbeing. Keywords: Agriculture; Pest control; Soil
erosion; Conservation of natural resources%
\end{abstract}%



\sloppy


\textbf{Introduction}

Sri Lanka has a prestigious history of hydraulic-based civilization
running back to 5\textsuperscript{th} century BC. Rice cultivation began
around 900 BC and has developed in an organized way since 300 BC (Cook,
1950; Vandermeersch and Deraniyagala, 1988; Senanayake, 2006). Until the
Green Revolution in the mid-1960s introduced modern farming techniques,
inorganic fertilizers and other agro-chemicals (Farmer, 1986; Wilson,
2000), the cultivation of paddy in Sri Lanka was entirely based on
indigenous techniques. These were developed based on the extensive
experience and knowledge of the local community and tested over two
thousand years of implementation (Vandermeersch and Deraniyagala, 1988).
The indigenous knowledge of local farmers about rice farming techniques
includes land preparation and soil fertility management, seed selection
and pre-planting, water management, method of rice planting, weed
control and pest and disease control techniques (Senanayake, 2006). The
indigenous knowledge system of local farmers is a broad area to discuss.
Mee tree (\emph{Madhuca longifolia} ) considered as the fertiliser tree
of the nation in ancient Sri Lankan aera. According to the ancient
literature available in Sri Lanka there were rules imposed of
prohibiting of cutting \emph{Madhuca longifolia} tree by of King Mihindu
IV. The nectar in the flowers and the fruits of the \emph{Madhuca
longifolia} attracts the fruit bats. Bat guano is a very rich
fertilizer, due to its high content of carbon and the three vital
primary macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (N-P-K) as
well as important secondary minerals such as calcium and magnesium that
help control soil pH(Buliga, 2010; Shetty, Sreepada, and Bhat, 2013).
When bats visit the \emph{Madhuca longifolia} trees during flowing and
fruit seasons it automatically provide guano in return to the ground.
The ancient Sri Lankans used these natural combinations to provide
fertiliser to their paddy fields. This article focuses on how ancient
Sri Lankan farmers used the Mee tree (\emph{Madhuca longifolia} ) and
its products in paddy cultivation.

\textbf{The impact of current agricultural practices on the produce:
chemical analysis of rice and reservoir water in Sri Lanka}

Paddy rice (\emph{Oryza sativa L} .) is the principal food of Sri
Lankans. Rice provides 30\% of the dietary energy and 20\% of the
dietary protein intake of Asians (World Health Organization FSD, 2002).
It is a well-known fact that rice is contaminated with toxic chemicals
and trace elements due to the unrestrained use of agrochemicals in
cultivation and the use of contaminated water to irrigate paddy fields.
Heavy metals that have been found to be present in high levels include
Cadmium (Cd), Arsenic (As), Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni), Zinc (Zn), Copper
(Cu) and Mercury (Hg).

Cadmium is a well-known carcinogenic heavy metal. It also contributes to
anaemia, hypertension and renal, pulmonary and skeletal disorders
(Khaniki and Zazoli, 2005). The current tolerable exposure level of Cd
is 25 \selectlanguage{greek}μ\selectlanguage{english}g/kg body weight per month (Satarug, Vesey and Gobe, 2017). The
main sources of Cd in rice are phosphate fertilizer and contaminated
water.

The dietary intake of Cd in Sri Lanka is chronically high (Bandara,
2008). The study conducted by Bandara et al. (2008) in the Anuradhapura
district shows that the Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake {[}\emph{an
estimated amount of the chemical with no intended function that can be
ingested weekly over a lifetime without appreciable health risk} {]} of
Cd is 8.702--15.927 \selectlanguage{greek}µ\selectlanguage{english}g/kg body weight for 5--50 years. Further in the
study, it has shown that dissolved Cd in reservoir water ranged from
0.03 to 0.06 mg/l, which is a 19-fold increment over the maximum
contaminant level set by the WHO (0.003 mg/l). Cd content in lotus
rhizomes was 253.82 mg/kg which is a common curry in Sri Lankan meals
(Bandara, 2008).

Another survey conducted by Meharg et al. (2013) using rice samples from
12 countries reported a mean Cd concentration of 8\selectlanguage{greek}µ\selectlanguage{english}g/kg in Sri Lankan
rice which was second only to Bangladesh (mean=99\selectlanguage{greek}µ\selectlanguage{english}g/kg). A study
published in 2020 shows that the average concentration of Cd in rice was
0.080 \selectlanguage{ngerman}± 0.130 mg/kg. Although almost 97\% of the samples were below the
Codex limit for polished rice (0.4 mg/kg), five samples had Cd
concentrations of 0.488 to 0.727 mg/kg, exceeding the Codex maximum
permissible level by 1.25 to 1.75 times, respectively (Liu et al.,
2020).

Arsenic levels in the groundwater and surface water of the country are
negligible (Chandrajith et al., 2011). But a study conducted by
Jayasumana et al., (2013) shows an elevated level of As (20.6-540.4
\selectlanguage{greek}μ\selectlanguage{english}g/kg) in agrochemical-dependent cultivations compared to cultivations
done without using agrochemicals (11.6-64.2 \selectlanguage{greek}μ\selectlanguage{english}g/kg). Another study
published in 2020 shows an average concentration of As of 0.077 \selectlanguage{ngerman}± 0.040
mg/kg which was considerably lower than the maximum Codex standard level
(0.200 mg/kg). But two samples from the Northern Province contained As
at 1.1 times that of the Codex maximum permissible level (Liu et al.,
2020).

The average concentration of Pb in Sri Lankan rice was 0.031 ± 0.052
mg/kg. The Pb concentration in three samples from Central, Northern and
Western provinces exceeded the Codex threshold (0.400 mg/kg) by 1.5 to 2
times

In summary, the available literature and scientific data attest to the
fact that the rice in the local Sri Lankan market contains heavy metals,
probably due to the uncontrolled use of agrochemicals for paddy
cultivation and irrigation using contaminated water. This is an alarming
finding given the health consequences following long-term exposure to
these chemicals, even at low concentrations. One of the main concerns in
Sri Lanka currently is chronic kidney disease of unknown aetiology
(CKDu), the incidence of which is rising among the agricultural
communities especially in the North Central province. Although the cause
of this disease is yet unidentified, heavy metals have been implicated
in the pathogenesis as high levels of these have been found in affected
individuals (Kulathunga et al., 2019). Therefore, timely action is
required from authorities to regulate agricultural activities in order
to minimize their harmful effects on human health. In the Sri Lankan
context, this would not prove difficult as the country has a long
history of ecological agricultural practices which are safe for both
humans and the environment.

\textbf{The use of Mee tree in indigenous agricultural practices}

\textbf{Mee tree (\emph{Madhuca longifolia})}

Mee is a native (a plant or animal that lives and reproduces in an area
without any human intervention) deciduous tree, which grows to a height
of 16-20m. Leaves are seen in whorls crowded at the terminal ends and
are oblong in shape with a tapered base and apex. The flowers are
fleshy, pale yellow in colour and are borne solitary but appear in
groups. The fruit is a yellow ovoid-shaped berry. The crown is rounded
with multiple branches. The bark is grey, vertically cracked and
wrinkled, exfoliating in thin scales. It has a large spreading root
system, of which some are superficial.

The importance of the Mee tree for local agriculture had been recognized
by the rulers of ancient Sri Lanka. This is evidenced by the presence of
a number of stone inscriptions which document rules and regulations
pertaining to the protection of these trees. A pillar inscription
installed by King Sena II (853-887AD) in Mihinthale prohibits the
cutting of palm, coconut, Mee and tamarind trees at the top of the
Mihinthale rock and asserts that violators would be fined (Ranawella,
2001) (Figure 1A). King Udaya III (935-938AD) banned the cutting down of
coconut and banyan trees as stated in his inscription at Athakada
(Ranawella, 2004). Cutting down of Mee and tamarind trees had been
banned in the Buddannehela stone inscription belonging to King Sena III
(938-946AD) (Ranawella, 2004). The Mihinthale slab inscription of King
Mihindu IV forbade the cutting of trees including Mee and palm and
decreed that offenders would be fined or put to work in irrigation work
(Amarawansa, 1969) (Figure 1B). He further declared in the Abhayagiri
slab inscription that lay people should not cut trees or plants
(Ranawella, 2004) (Figure 2). The Puliyankulama slab inscription of
Udamahaya states that palm and Mee trees should not be cut down
(Wickremasinghe, 1912). The Kiribathwehera slab inscription installed by
King Kashyapa IV (898-914AD) denotes a Mee tree as one of the borders of
an area of land (Wickremasinghe, 1912). This could be due to the fact
that Mee trees have a long lifespan owing to the fact that cutting down
these trees are prohibited. The Mee tree and palm tree are also
mentioned in the Aluthwewa pillar inscription commissioned by the same
king (Ranawella, 2001).

\textbf{(Insert Figure 1 Here)}

\textbf{(Insert Figure 2 Here)}

These artefacts bear evidence to the degree of concern that ancient Sri
Lankan rulers had for the protection of the natural environment. The
reason for their explicit interest in conserving the Mee tree could be
that the ancestors were aware of the value of the tree in preventing
soil erosion, conserving water, cooling the environment, providing food
and medicinal substances and ensuring the survival of various animal
species. Owing to its' importance in the livelihood of the people, the
Mee tree was sometimes chosen as the site for religious and spiritual
rituals in villages (Figure 3).

\textbf{(Insert Figure 3 Here)}

\textbf{The role of Mee tree in paddy cultivation}

Local farmers planted 3-4 Mee trees per acre of paddy field. These trees
were planted in the water inlet areas as well as the water outlet areas
since they have a deep as well as a superficial root system that
prevents soil erosion at the water entry and exit points. Ancient
farmers were also aware of the fact that by planting Mee trees at water
exit points, nutrition-rich liquid fertiliser would be carried away to
downstream paddy fields.

The irrigation system of the Nuwara Kalawiya region had been designed in
such a way that water from one lake flows into another. The water from
one paddy field joins the canal carrying waste water and thence to the
adjacent lake or paddy field. Since this stream of water flows across a
plantation of Mee trees, nutrient components mix with the water and are
carried to the adjacent field. This is evidence that the ancestors had
efficiently combined the irrigation and agricultural systems with
elements of the natural environment and is a testament to their
indigenous knowledge as well as their altruistic attitudes.

Farmers knew the chemical properties of the various parts of the Mee
tree and took advantage of having these trees at the water inlet points
of paddy fields. Chopped roots of the Mee tree exposed to water helped
to control insect larvae and pupae in the paddy field (Irangani and
Shiratake, 2013). Ancient farmers would also select a Mee tree in a
specific location of the field, remove a certain number of rings from
the bark and place them in the water inlet or mix them with sand and
spray to the field in order to get rid of rats. The seeds of the tree
were chopped and sprayed to the field to get rid of paddy bugs
(Jayatissa, Dissanayake and Perera, 2019). The oil extract from the
seeds was used as a natural pesticide against Kola hakulana dalambuwa
(leaf roller -- \emph{Cnaphalocrocis medinalis} ) (Irangani and
Shiratake, 2013). The oil was also used to light oil lamps in the paddy
field to prevent insects such as paddy bugs from destroying the produce
(Jayatissa, Dissanayake and Perera, 2019). By such methods, the farmers
managed to control pests without the use of harmful agrochemicals.

The flowering season of the Mee tree attracts insects and birds to it
(for the nectar of the flowers and for the fruits) and creates a natural
food chain around the tree. This natural food chain attracts various
predator birds towards the paddy field which naturally reduce the pest
infestations. Also farmers placed the petiole of coconut leaves at
different locations around the paddy field as resting places for birds.
This allow the predator birds to rest on the paddy field further reduce
the pests. These petiole of coconut leaves functioned as a resting site
for owls at night who hunt rats who damage paddy in its final growth
phase as well. By this method, the farmers were able to attract birds
across the field and encourage natural pest control. The insects
themselves attract insectivorous bats who feed on them and eventually
help control the pests.

The fruit of the Mee tree is one of the favourite meals of the fruit bat
(Old World fruit bats, Pteropus flying fox). Swarms of bats arrive and
consume the fruits once they are ripe enough and leave bite marks on the
remaining fruits (Figure 4). By the dusk of the second or third day,
these fruits too ripen and the villagers believe that these bats have
the remarkable ability of flying back in search of the fruits that they
marked. Occasionally, the bats would carry a few ripe fruits back to
their roosting sites. The fruits that fall from their grip along the
journey gets planted in the vicinity and is a reason for the abundance
of Mee trees around the roosting sites of bats. The excrement produced
by bats (guano) after consuming the fruits of the Mee tree is a source
of organic fertilizer for paddy fields. These stools contain organic
matter, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus etc. Bat guano is an organic
fertilizer that can improve plant growth and soil structure. Mee trees
were therefore grown in paddy fields to attract bats in order to collect
their guano for fertilizer. Traditional farmers also used the leaves of
the tree as fertilizer (Jayatissa, Dissanayake and Perera, 2019).

\textbf{(Insert Figure 4 Here)}

\textbf{Scientific evidence for the benefits of using Mee tree in
cultivations}

The chemical composition and properties of the essential oil extract of
the Mee tree were studied and it was found to have high levels of
Farnesol and its' analog, Farnesene. Farnesol is considered to act as a
pheromone for several insects and as a pesticide for mites. It also has
antimicrobial action against certain bacteria and fungi (Suryawanshi and
Mokat, 2019) .

Even though there is a scarcity of documented evidence for the use of
bat guano in Sri Lanka, there is plenty of documented evidence from
world history to understand the importance of bat guano use in
cultivation by ancient farmers. Andean people from the small islands of
Peru have used bat guano as a soil amendment as far as 1500 years ago
(Cushman and Guano, 2013). In Tanzania, the Kisarawe caves are said to
harbour three million bats producing one ton of guano per day (Juma,
2001). There are reports that over 3000 tons of bat guano were obtained
from these caves between 1934 and 1954 for agricultural use, especially
for farms near the areas of the cave of Sukumawera in Mbeya, South
Tanzania (Nilsen, 1980).

When considering the chemical composition of guano of insectivorous
bats, one study has shown that on average, oxygen was the most abundant
element (54.94\%). This helps to increase the soil bacteria and other
helminths which enrich the soil structure. Additionally, macro-nutrients
such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur
were also abundant in the guano (Misra, Gautam and Elangovan, 2019). As
mentioned above, when a food chain developed around these trees,
eventually bat and bird guano dropped to the paddy field. The average
composition in the fresh guano of insectivorous bat and birds are around
50\% carbon, 10\% nitrogen, 2--7 \% phosphorus pentoxide
(P\textsubscript{2}O\textsubscript{5}) with sulphur abundances of
10--20\% (Shahack-Gross et al., 2004; Forbes et al., 2007). These key
elements nourished the ancient paddy fields and farmers managed to
control their cultivation in an eco-friendly manner. The incorporation
of bat guano into the soil enhances crop production and studies have
thus emphasized the importance of conservation of insectivorous bats and
their guano(Sridhar et al., 2006).

Remnants of insects including agricultural pests belonging to the orders
Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Homoptera and Hemiptera were found in the
faecal matter of insectivorous bats in a study done in India (Misra,
Gautam and Elangovan, 2019) . There is a lack of published data except
for the indigenous knowledge of local farmers that bat pest control
contributed to the food security in Sri Lanka. However, there are plenty
of published data to provide evidence that both bats and birds increased
the yield of the crops. Indonesian cacao plantations produced increased
yield when the herbivorous insect population reduced with natural pest
control(Maas, Clough and Tscharntke, 2013). According to published data,
cotton yield worth USD 741,000 was protected annually in the United
States by bats feeding on cotton bollworms (Cleveland et al., 2006). It
has been shown that an estimated USD 3.7 billion worth of cotton harvest
was saved annually across the US by bat populations. A study conducted
in Thailand has shown that bats protects rice worth more than USD 1.2
million annually (Wanger et al., 2014). The same study highlighted that
the bats also feed on other major rice pests in Asia such as the brown
planthopper (\emph{Nilaparvata lugens- - Dumburu Pela Keedawa)} and the
White-Backed Planthopper (WBP). The bats not only feed on adult male and
winged female White-Backed Planthoppers but also consume pregnant WBPs
which prevents future offsprings from hatching(Wanger et al., 2014). The
western world has understood the value of these bats and has taken steps
to attract bats to their farmlands. For example, in California, USA,
farmers have installed resting boxes for bats within their farmlands to
help control agricultural pests(Tuttle, Kiser and Kiser, 2005).

\textbf{Conclusions}

The rice we eat is contaminated with various chemicals and heavy metals
introduced to farmlands by the use of numerous agrochemicals and
contaminated water for irrigation. This could be one of the reasons for
the various organ malfunctions and cancers burdening the population of
the country. There is an abundance of indigenous knowledge used by local
farmers in cultivation. Sri Lankan farmers used eco-friendly methods of
cultivation which were developed based on their experiences and the
scientific basis of these practices has now been proven by various
studies. At present, although most Sri Lankan farmers are dependent on
agrochemicals introduced by the western world, the agricultural sectors
of those countries are attempting to revert to organic cultivation
techniques used by ancestors since time immemorial. This shift should be
regarded as a wake-up call by farmers and authorities to adopt
sustainable agricultural practices in order to safeguard the environment
as well as human health.

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\end{itemize}

\textbf{Figure Legends}

\textbf{Figure 1 -} A) Mihinthale pillar inscription B) Mihinthale slab
inscription

\textbf{Figure 2} - Abhayagiri slab inscription

\textbf{Figure 3} - Worshipping Lord Gana (a deity) near a Mee tree in
Madawadiwiya, Kidagalegama, Sri Lanka.

\textbf{Figure 4} - Bats resting in Kumbuk trees along the Malwathu
river bank near Jethawana project, Anuradhapura

\textbf{Data Accessibility} :

Not applicable

\textbf{Conflicts of interest:}

Not applicable

\textbf{Authors' contributions} :

All the authors have contributed to the structure, content, and writing
of the paper. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

\textbf{Acknowledgements} :

Not applicable

\textbf{Funding} :

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