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\title{Chimney-like intense pelagic upwelling in the center of basin-scale
cyclonic gyres in large Lake Geneva}



\author[1]{Seyed Mahmood Hamze-Ziabari}%
\author[2]{Ulrich Lemmin}%
\author[3]{Mehrshad Foroughan}%
\author[3]{Rafael S. Reiss}%
\author[3]{D. Andrew Barry}%
\affil[1]{Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne}%
\affil[2]{Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne}%
\affil[3]{École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne}%


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  \date{June 16, 2024}


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\begin{abstract}
Basin-scale quasi-geostrophic gyres are common features of large lakes
subject to Coriolis force. Cyclonic gyres are often characterized by
dome-shaped thermoclines that form due to pelagic upwelling which takes
place in their center. At present, dynamics of pelagic upwelling in the
Surface Mixed Layer (SML) of oceans and lakes are poorly documented. A
unique combination of high-resolution 3D numerical modeling, satellite
imagery and field observations allowed confirming for the first time in
a lake, the existence of intense pelagic upwelling in the center of
cyclonic gyres under strong shallow (summer) and weak deep (winter)
stratified conditions/thermocline. Field observations in Lake Geneva
revealed that surprisingly intense upwelling from the thermocline to the
SML and even to the lake surface occurred as chimney-like structures of
cold water within the SML, as confirmed by Advanced Very High-Resolution
Radiometer data. Results of a calibrated 3D numerical model suggest that
the classical Ekman pumping mechanism cannot explain such pelagic
upwelling. Analysis of the contribution of various terms in the
vertically-averaged momentum equation showed that the nonlinear
(advective) term dominates, resulting in heterogeneous divergent flows
within cyclonic gyres. The combination of nonlinear heterogeneous
divergent flow and 3D ageostrophic strain caused by gyre distortion is
responsible for the chimney-like upwelling in the SML. The potential
impact of such pelagic upwelling on long-term observations at a
measurement station in the center of Lake Geneva suggests that caution
should be exercised when relying on limited (in space and/or time)
profile measurements for monitoring and quantifying processes in large
lakes.%
\end{abstract}%



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