CONCLUSION
Our results in an epiphyllous metapopulation, confirm that forest fragmentation has induced marked effects on both plant population demography and genetic differentiation over half a century. Declines in colonization events in 1- and 10-ha fragment replicates (Zartman & Shaw, 2006), associated with reduced colony densities, led to accelerated genetic drift altering the allelic frequency in smaller fragments, more evident in 1-ha patches when compared to large patches (100-ha fragment and continuous forest). Furthermore, the mating system (unisexual vs. bisexual) was related to differential sensitivities to the intensity of fragmentation with a contrasting response on the genetic diversity and allelic frequency. Specifically, the unisexual species was characterized by higher migration rates which maintained similar genetic diversity between small patches and large patches, when compared to the bisexual species. Further research should expand sampling considering species with different traits (Sierra et al., 2019b), and consider habitat-dependent reproductive performance (Maciel-Silva et al., 2012) to formulate universal predictions of species sensitivity to habitat fragmentation. Also, how the synergistic effects of habitat fragmentation and climate change will impact the mid- to long-term demographic evolutionary process is of high concern (Scott et al., 2021). Finally, further research should target if genetic variations are subject to adaptive evolution in species experiencing the effects of habitat fragmentation (Hanski et al., 2017). An integrative eco-evolutionary approach will improve conservation strategies for maintaining among-population processes for the persistence of metapopulation in future landscape and climate scenarios.