Self-Report Instruments |
Self-Report Instruments |
Self-Report Instruments |
Self-Report Instruments |
Self-Report Instruments |
Self-Report
Instruments |
Visual Analogue Scale (VAS)
1921
|
A 10-cm line ranging from ”no pain to ”worst pain imaginable”. The
patient marks a point on the line to indicate their pain level
|
- Allows for a wide range of responses, and can be used for non-verbal
communication of pain
- Sensitive to small changes209
|
- Relies on patients’ subjective perception
- Cannot be administered verbally
- Difficult conceptualization for some patients.
- Unidimensional
|
Subjective pain reporting may be affected by tolerance and
hyperalgesia
|
Muriel et al. (2023)104
Nielsen et al. (2017)105
Veldman et al. (2022)106
|
Numeric Rating Scale (NRS)
1978
|
Patients rate their pain on a scale from 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst
possible pain)
|
- Simple and easy to use
- Can be performed verbally in telephone
interviews210
|
- Relies on patients’ subjective perception
- May lack sensitivity due to restricted range211
- Unidimensional
|
Restricted range may fail to capture nuances for patients with altered
pain perception
|
Latiff et al. (2021)114
|
Brief Pain
Inventory (BPI)
1982
|
Questionnaire that measures both intensity of pain (sensory dimension)
and interference of pain (reactive dimension)
|
- Multidimensional
- Assesses functionality impairments
- Short and simple format
|
- Longer to complete than the VAS or NRS
|
Useful for capturing multidimensional nature of pain in OUD patients,
including functional impairment
|
Hall et al. (2022)120
|
McGill Pain
Questionnaire
1999
|
Questionnaire that measures multiple pain domains
|
- Multidimensional
- Assesses impairments in function, mood, social life, and sleep
|
- Longer to complete than the BPI
|
Useful for capturing details regarding the nature of pain in OUD
patients, beyond functional impairments
|
De Aquino et al. (2023)122
Latif et al. (2019)123
|
Clinical, Psychophysical, Neurophysiological, and Neuroimaging
Techniques |
Clinical, Psychophysical, Neurophysiological, and
Neuroimaging Techniques |
Clinical, Psychophysical,
Neurophysiological, and Neuroimaging Techniques |
Clinical,
Psychophysical, Neurophysiological, and Neuroimaging Techniques |
Clinical, Psychophysical, Neurophysiological, and Neuroimaging
Techniques |
Clinical, Psychophysical, Neurophysiological, and
Neuroimaging Techniques |
Behavioral
Observations
|
Observable pain-related behaviors such as facial expressions, body
language, changes in interpersonal interactions and changes in activity
level as measured by actigraphy and pedometers
|
- Not self-reported
- Useful for patients unable to communicate
|
- Behaviors can be ambiguous
- Difficult to quantify
- Prone to observer bias126
|
Opioid-induced hyperalgesia can complicate interpretation of behavioral
reactions to pain stimuli
|
Teeters et al. (2021)130
Salgado García et al. (2022)132
Lambert et al. (2022)133
Bertz et al. (2019)134
|
Physiological
Indicators
|
Objective measures of bodily function such as heart rate, blood
pressure, and respiratory rate
|
- Not self-reported
- Useful for patients unable to communicate
|
- Nonspecific
- Many factors can influence physiological responses
- Equipment required
|
Opioid-induced physiological changes, and withdrawal may confound
interpretation
|
Roberts et al. (2022)145
Levin et al. (2019)146
|
Quantitative
Sensory Testing (QST)
|
Series of standardized tests that quantify sensory experiences. Can use
heat, cold, mechanical, or pressure stimuli
|
- QST is useful for pain phenotyping, assessing threshold, tolerance,
habituation, and summation
- Helpful to diagnose hyperalgesia
|
- Not yet optimized for daily clinical usual
- Clinical usability data is incipient
|
QST is a rising tool for assessing opioid phenomena, but its use is yet
limited to research settings
|
Prosser et al. (2018)152
Edwards et al. (2011)156
Compton et al. (2020)157
|
Functional
MRI
|
Brain imaging that captures changes in blood flow as a proxy for brain
activity.
|
- Can provide insight into which brain areas respond to certain stimuli
and tasks
- May serve for validation of therapy responses
|
- Correlation of brain activation does not necessarily imply a causal
relationship
- Less available, higher costs
|
Limited clinically relevant results for the understanding and treatment
of OUD in its current state. Findings may be used as biomarkers in the
future.
|
Faraj et al. (2021)164
|
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
|
Technique using measurable electrical signals in the nervous system that
originate from a controlled stimulus
|
- Relatively cheap and easy to employ, readily available
- Can be used with other measures in a singular session (e.g.,
actigraphy)
|
- Does not provide the same spatial resolution and anatomical
localization as neuroimaging
- Gathers superficial cortical electrical activation, not inclusive of
deeper brain structures.
|
Emerging use as a biomarker in OUD studies, for example as a predictor
of opioid analgesic response
|
Huhn et al. (2022)177
|