Cytokine analysis
Whole colon tissues were homogenized using a tissue homogenizer (Minilys personal homogenizer, Bertin). Homogenates were analyzed for pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, MCP-1, and IL-10 were analyzed by flow cytometry using a BD Cytometric Beads Assay Mouse inflammation kit (BD Biosciences, Franklin Lakes, NJ, USA). IL-1β and IL-22 levels were detected using a mouse IL-1β ELISA Kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA) and a mouse IL-22 ELISA Kit (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA, USA), respectively, following the manufacturer’s instructions.