Covariates
Covariate information were obtained from touchscreen questionnaire and verbal interview at baseline. Sociodemographic factors (age, sex, ethnicity), lifestyle habits (smoking status, alcohol consumption, sleep time, and dietary intake), multivitamin and mineral supplements intake, and general health (overall health rating and longstanding illness) were self-reported. Index of multiple deprivation based on postcode of residence was determined as a composite measure of socioeconomic status. Blood pressure was measured by research staff. Current concomitant comorbidities (hyperlipidemia, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, esophagitis/Barrettsesophagus, GERD, peptic ulcer, upper gastrointestinal bleeding) were assessed using the same way to assess CKD. Other medication use, including aspirin, non-NSAIDs, acetaminophen, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors[ACEIs], angiotensin II receptor blockers [ARBs], beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, thiazide diuretics, statin, metformin, histamine-2 receptor antagonists [H2RAs], and anticoagulants/ antiplateletsĀ drugs, were assessed using the same way to assess PPI use. Height and weight were measured by trained research staff and used to calculate body mass index (BMI).